{"id":289,"date":"2015-01-24T09:00:59","date_gmt":"2015-01-24T07:00:59","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.etrfi.info\/articles\/?p=289"},"modified":"2024-11-14T12:01:51","modified_gmt":"2024-11-14T10:01:51","slug":"hermeneutics-in-talmud-midrash-and-the-new-testament","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.etrfi.info\/articles\/?p=289","title":{"rendered":"Hermeneutics in Talmud, Midrash and the New Testament"},"content":{"rendered":"<p style=\"text-align: right;\">\n<p>This article is mainly about <a href=\"https:\/\/www.etrfi.info\/articles\/?p=289#middot\">the seven Middot of Hillel<\/a>:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.etrfi.info\/articles\/?p=289#m1\">Qal wa-homer<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.etrfi.info\/articles\/?p=289#m2\">Gezerah shawah<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.etrfi.info\/articles\/?p=289#m3\">Binyan av mi-katuv ehad<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.etrfi.info\/articles\/?p=289#m4\">Binyan av mi-shnei ketuvim<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.etrfi.info\/articles\/?p=289#m5\">Kelal u-ferat u-ferat u-khelal<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.etrfi.info\/articles\/?p=289#m6\">Keyotzeh bo be-makom aher<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.etrfi.info\/articles\/?p=289#m7\">Devar ha-lamed me-inyano<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><!--more--><\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h4><strong><em>Peshat<\/em> and <em>Derash<\/em><\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>In discussing the rabbinic interpretation of Scripture as found in talmudic and midrashic literature, scholars commonly distinguish between <i>peshat<\/i><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_1');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_1');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_1\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">1<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_1\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">For a more thorough treatment of peshat in rabbinic literature, see I. Frankel, <i>Peshat in Talmudic and Midrashic Literature<\/i> (Toronto, 1956); W. Bacher, <i>Die exegetische Terminologie der j\u00fcdischen Traditionsliteratur<\/i> (Leipzig, 1899), vol. 2, pp. 170 ff. (<i>peshat<\/i>). On the terminology, see among others M. Gertner, \u201cTerms of Scriptural Interpretation: A Study in Hebrew Semantics,\u201d <i>Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies<\/i> 25 (1962), 1-27; J.Z. Lauterbach, <i>Jewish Encyclopedia<\/i>, vol. 9, pp. 6523; R. Loewe, \u201cThe \u2018Plain\u2019 Meaning of Scripture in Early Jewish Exegesis,\u201d J.G. Weiss ed., <i>Papers of the Institute of Jewish Studies in London<\/i> (London, 1964), pp. 140-185.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_1').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_1', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> as the literal exegesis or interpretation of the scriptural text,<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_2');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_2');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_2\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">2<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_2\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">For a closer look at the discussion around Geiger and the issue of the natural meaning of Scripture, see E. Starfelt, <i>Studier i rabbinsk og nytestamentlig skrifttolkning<\/i> (Studia Theologica Lundensia 17; Lund, 1959); L. Zunz, <i>Die gottesdienstlichen Vortr\u00e4ge der Juden<\/i> (Berlin, 1832), who identifies <i>peshat<\/i> with \u201cErlauterungen des Schrifttextes nach dem Wortverstande\u201d; Lauterbach, pp. 652-3, who sums up the meaning as \u201csimple Scriptural exegesis\u201d and \u201cthe literal sense of Scripture\u201d; J. Bonsirven, <i>Ex\u00e9g\u00e8se rabbinique et ex\u00e9g\u00e8se paulinienne<\/i>, (Paris, 1939), pp. 5, 34-5 and 389, who interprets <i>peshat<\/i> as \u201csens simple.\u201d<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_2').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_2', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> and <i>derash<\/i> (or <i>derush<\/i>, from the verbal root <i>darash<\/i>) as the freer, more actualizing and embellishing interpretation.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_3');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_3');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_3\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">3<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_3\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Compare here A.G. Wright, <i>The Literary Genre Midrash<\/i> (Staten Island, New York, c. 1967), p. 59, first published in <i>Catholic Biblical Quarterly<\/i> 28 (1966), 105-138; 417-457. It is also common to divide Jewish scriptural interpretation into four forms or methods: <i>peshat<\/i> (the literary interpretation), <i>remez<\/i> (allegorical submeaning), <i>derush<\/i> (the common interpretation) and <i>sod<\/i> (the secret or deepest contents). See Lauterbach, p. 653, and Starfelt, p. 30. For a more thorough treatment of the term darash \u2014 midrash in the Old Testament, New Testament, Qumran and rabbinic literature \u2014 see A.J. Hobbel, \u201cHva er midrasj?\u201d, <i>Nordisk Judaistik<\/i> 7:2 (1986), 57-70.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_3').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_3', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> It has been disputed, however, whether such a distinction between <i>peshat<\/i> and <i>derash<\/i><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_4');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_4');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_4\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">4<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_4\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See, e.g., Lauterbach, pp. 652-3, and Wright, pp. 59 ff. Compare also S. Horowits, <i>Jewish Encyclopedia<\/i>, vol. 8, p. 548; J. Neusner, \u201cHistory and Midrash,\u201d <i>Judaism<\/i> 9 (I960), 48-9, who at the same time recalls that the occasional distinction of the rabbis \u201cbetween a particular imaginative Midrash of a verse and its plain sense\u201d meant far less for them than nowadays.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_4').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_4', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> existed from the earliest rabbinical sources.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_5');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_5');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_5\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">5<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_5\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See Loewe.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_5').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_5', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> In Midrash, this distinction is not clearly defined; sometimes the terms are used interchangeably in parallel passages.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_6');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_6');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_6\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">6<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_6\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Compare L.I. Rabinowitz, <i>Encyclopaedia Judaica<\/i>, vol. 8, col. 330; Loewe, especially pp. 156-7 and 183.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_6').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_6', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Only in the Middle Ages did the term <i>derash<\/i> come to be used for homiletic interpretation in contrast to peshat, the literal interpretation; this took place, most probably, under the influence of Rashi\u2019s Bible commentaries.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_7');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_7');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_7\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">7<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_7\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">L.I. Rabinowitz, Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. 5, col. 1549.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_7').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_7', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<h2>Creative Historiography and Creative Philology<\/h2>\n<p><i>Derash<\/i> as an exegetical method has commonly been divided into \u201ccreative historiography\u201d and \u201ccreative philology.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_8');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_8');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_8\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">8<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_8\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Neusner, p. 50, who seems to have borrowed the terminology from the book of I. Heinemann, <i>Darkhei Ha-Aggadah<\/i> (Jerusalem, 1949). Cf. also Wright, p. 60.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_8').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_8', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Creative historiography seeks to clarify the scriptural text and make it relevant in one way or another for the writer\u2019s audience. It employs embellishments to clarify Bible stories and to answer questions aroused by \u201choles\u201d in the text, both making the text easier for the reader to understand and removing historical and doctrinal problems that the scriptural text itself has raised. Behind it, therefore, lie to a great extent ex- egetical and homiletical motives.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_9');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_9');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_9\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">9<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_9\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Compare Wright, p. 61.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_9').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_9', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> As creative historiography, Midrash rewrites the past in order to make evident the eternal righteousness, integrity and correctness of the scriptural paradigms.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_10');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_10');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_10\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">10<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_10\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Compare Neusner, p. 50.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_10').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_10', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p>Whereas creative historiography thus aims to clarify the text and make it relevant and meaningful, creative philology employs various techniques to draw conclusions from Scripture and bring out its hidden meanings.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_11');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_11');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_11\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">11<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_11\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Wright, p. 61.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_11').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_11', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> As creative philology, Midrash discovers meaning in details that at first glance may seem meaningless or insignificant.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_12');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_12');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_12\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">12<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_12\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Neusner, p. 50.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_12').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_12', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> It seeks to expound all details in the scriptural passage, out of the conviction that Scripture, as G-d\u2019s own word, has many meanings<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_13');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_13');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_13\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">13<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_13\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Wright, pp. 62-3.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_13').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_13', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> and can express many things at the same time.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_14');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_14');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_14\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">14<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_14\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Cf. Numbers Rabbah 2:3 and 13:15-16, where it is said that a word of Scripture or a scriptural passage may have 70 (or 49) aspects.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_14').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_14', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> In creative philology, all parts of Scripture \u2014 letters, words, verses and passages \u2014 can be explained not only each in its own context, but also apart from the context as independent and more disconnected autonomous units.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_15');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_15');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_15\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">15<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_15\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Wright, pp. 62-3.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_15').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_15', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p>It is almost impossible to find rabbinic methodological formulations about creative historiography; that one was permitted to develop and expound the biblical material seems rather to have been taken for granted. With creative philology, however, the situation is quite different: here the rabbis did formulate certain exegetical or hermeneutical rules by means of which the Torah should be expounded.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_16');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_16');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_16\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">16<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_16\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Wright, pp. 61-2.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_16').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_16', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<h2>Rabbinic Hermeneutical Rules &#8211; <i>Middot<\/i><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_17');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_17');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_17\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">17<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_17\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">On the following, see especially H.L. Strack, <i>Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash<\/i> (New York, 1969), pp. 93-98; Bonsirven, op. cit. (note 2); D. Daube, \u201cRabbinic Methods of Interpretation and Hellenistic Rhetoric,\u201d <i>Hebrew Union College Annual<\/i> 22 (1949), 239-264; J.Z. Lauterbach, <i>Jewish Encyclopedia<\/i>, vol. 9, pp. 3034; G. Mayer, \u201cExegese II (Judentum),\u201d <i>Reallexicon f\u00fcr Antike und Christentum<\/i>, vol. 6, pp. 1194-1203; B. Salomonsen, \u201cOm rabbinsk hermeneutik,\u201d <i>Dansk Teologisk Tidsskrift<\/i> 36 (1973), 161-173; L. Jacobs, \u201cHermeneutics,\u201d <i>Encyclopaedia Judaica<\/i>, vol. 8, coll. 366-372; A.J. Hobbel, \u201cSkrifttolkning og midrasjlitteratur,\u201d in H. Koalbein ed., <i>Skriftlaerde og fariseere<\/i> (Oslo, 1984), pp. 179-192, 227-229, 245-248, especially pp. 183 ff.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_17').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_17', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/h2>\n<p>The rabbis considered Scripture \u2014 in particular the Torah or Pentateuch \u2014 as a unity,<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_18');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_18');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_18\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">18<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_18\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See Starfelt, pp. 60-61.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_18').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_18', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> a divine<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_19');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_19');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_19\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">19<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_19\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Compare ibid., pp. 266-7, also pp. 34-47 (about interpretation of the Law).<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_19').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_19', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> body, brief in its manner of expression.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_20');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_20');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_20\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">20<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_20\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid., pp. 61-2.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_20').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_20', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> It was also regarded as expressing itself in ordinary human language.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_21');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_21');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_21\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">21<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_21\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid., p. 62.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_21').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_21', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> The Law was viewed as the basis for the correct relation to G-d.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_22');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_22');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_22\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">22<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_22\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid., pp. 68-9.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_22').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_22', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> It was possible, therefore, for the rabbis to find a deeper meaning in the text besides the more manifest and plain one,<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_23');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_23');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_23\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">23<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_23\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_23').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_23', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> and to elicit a fuller application of its laws by formulating or establishing certain principles of interpretation, so-called <i>middot<\/i>.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_24');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_24');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_24\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">24<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_24\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Compare Jacobs, p. 366. <i>Middot<\/i> = \u201cmeasures,\u201d \u201crules,\u201d \u201cnorms,\u201d \u201cqualities.\u201d On the term, see W. Bacher, op. cit. (note 1 above), vol. 1, pp. 100-103, where he points out that the term does not only designate rules for interpreting Scripture, but also designates this exposition itself (p. 102); compare also vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1905), PP\u00b7 106-7 (but subsequent references to Bacher will be to vol. 1).<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_24').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_24', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p>There are three formulations of such exegetical or hermeneutical rules:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Hillel\u2019s seven <i>middot<\/i><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_25');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_25');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_25\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">25<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_25\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Sifra, introduction; Avot de-Rabbi Nathan 110; tSanhedrin 7 (the end).<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_25').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_25', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/li>\n<li>R. Ishmael\u2019s thirteen <i>middot<\/i><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_26');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_26');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_26\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">26<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_26\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Sifra, introduction.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_26').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_26', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/li>\n<li>R. Eliezer ben Jose ha-Galili\u2019s thirty-two <i>middot<\/i><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_27');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_27');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_27\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">27<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_27\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Midrash Ha-Gadol, introduction.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_27').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_27', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>These collections, however, do not represent a complete or exhaustive formulation of the exegetical rules of the rabbis,<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_28');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_28');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_28\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">28<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_28\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">For a brief description of other exegetical rules see, for example, Lauterbach, p. 30.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_28').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_28', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> since they primarily concern Halakhah, except the <i>middot<\/i> of R. Eliezer which are mainly aggadic.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_29');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_29');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_29\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">29<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_29\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">A. Hilewitz, <i>Encyclopaedia Judaica<\/i>, vol. 6, col. 630; Jacobs, p. 367.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_29').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_29', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> R. Ishmael\u2019s thirteen rules are largely an extension of Hillel\u2019s seven. It is disputed whether any Greek or Hellenistic influence can be discerned behind the various rules, even though some of them might well seem to have terminological parallels in this respect.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_30');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_30');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_30\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">30<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_30\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Jacobs, ibid.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_30').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_30', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p>The following discussion will be limited to a consideration of the seven rules ascribed to Hillel, seeking to establish whether traces of them occur also in the New Testament. Wherever this may be the case, examples will be given from both the New Testament and rabbinic literature itself.<\/p>\n<h2>Hillers Seven <i>Middot<\/i><\/h2>\n<p>It need not be presumed that Hillel\u2019s seven <i>middot<\/i><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_31');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_31');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_31\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">31<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_31\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Schwarz considered that Hillel set forth only six middot (cf. Starfelt, p. 70, note 2).<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_31').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_31', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> or rules of interpretation originated from Hillel himself or that he was the first one to formulate them. Quite probably they existed already before his time, in which case he would have gathered them, possibly expounded them,<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_32');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_32');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_32\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">32<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_32\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Compare Lauterbach, p. 31.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_32').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_32', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> and been one of the first to utilize them for the purpose of defining practical Halakhah.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_33');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_33');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_33\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">33<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_33\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><i>Encyclopaedia Judaica<\/i>, vol. 8, col. 482.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_33').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_33', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> With these seven rules too, moreover, some scholars claim to discern a Greek or Hellenistic influence or to find such parallels.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_34');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_34');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_34\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">34<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_34\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See among others Mayer, especially pp. 1196-1198. Also Daube, op. cit. (note 17) and \u201cAlexandrian Methods of Interpretation and the Rabbis,\u201d <i>Festschrift H. Lewald<\/i> (Basel, 1953), pp. 27-44.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_34').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_34', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><br \/>\n<a name=\"m1\"><\/a><br \/>\nThe verb <i>darash<\/i> is used by the rabbis in connection with the seven rules of Hillel.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_35');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_35');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_35\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">35<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_35\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Sifra, introduction.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_35').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_35', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> This fact in itself justifies our placing them under the overall heading of midrashic interpretation. Let us now examine each of them individually.<\/p>\n<h4><strong><i>Qal wa-homer<\/i><\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>Both in Hillel\u2019s and in R. Ishmael\u2019s collection of <i>middot<\/i>, <i>qal wa-homer<\/i> occupies the first place. Also called <i>din<\/i> (conclusion),<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_36');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_36');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_36\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">36<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_36\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Lauterbach, p. 32.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_36').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_36', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> it is without doubt one of the most common of the exegetical rules. Qal means light or in juridical language less strict; <i>homer<\/i> means weight or in juridical language a strict or important decision or circumstance.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_37');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_37');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_37\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">37<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_37\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Starfelt, p. 75. For different ways of explaining the expression\u2019s combination of an adjective and a noun, see ibid., n. 3.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_37').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_37', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p><i>Qal wa-homer<\/i> signifies inferences a minori ad maius \u2014 from the lesser to the greater. That is, if something applies in a less important case (<i>qal<\/i>), it must apply even more so to a more important one (<i>homer<\/i>). It is also, however, used to denote argumentation a maiori ad minus \u2014 from the greater to the lesser; if something applies in a more important case (<i>homer<\/i>), it also applies in a less important one (<i>qal<\/i>).<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_38');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_38');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_38\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">38<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_38\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Compare Bacher, p. 172.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_38').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_38', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Accordingly, the full name for this rule should more precisely be <i>qal wa-homer we-homer wa-qal<\/i><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_39');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_39');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_39\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">39<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_39\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Compare Lauterbach, p. 32.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_39').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_39', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> in connection with <i>qal wa-homer<\/i>, typically enthymematic inferences may be involved, in other words inferences where one or both of the premises are implied.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_40');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_40');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_40\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">40<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_40\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Starfelt, p. 80.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_40').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_40', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p>There were certain restrictions concerning the validity of the conclusion drawn by means of <i>qal wa-homer<\/i>:<\/p>\n<ol style=\"list-style-type: upper-latin;\">\n<li>The so-called <i>dayyo<\/i>-rule:<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_41');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_41');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_41\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">41<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_41\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">mBava Kamma 2:5, compare mNiddah 4:6. Cf. also bBava Kamma 18b, 37b.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_41').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_41', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> the conclusion cannot contain more than is already contained in the premise.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_42');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_42');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_42\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">42<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_42\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Lauterbach, p. 32.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_42').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_42', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> To put it differently, this restriction limits the consequences of the part designated by <i>homer<\/i> to being like the consequences of the part designated by <i>qal<\/i>.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_43');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_43');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_43\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">43<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_43\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Starfelt, p. 78.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_43').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_43', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> <i>Qal wa-homer<\/i> cannot be used to argue that if A has x, then B has x and y; it contents itself with concluding that B has x. To conclude that B also has y is to transcend the restriction that is in force according to the <i>dayyo<\/i>-rule.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_44');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_44');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_44\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">44<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_44\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Compare Jacobs, p. 367.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_44').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_44', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Although the <i>dayyo<\/i>-rule is rejected by R. Tarphon in certain cases,<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_45');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_45');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_45\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">45<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_45\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">bBava Kamma 25a.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_45').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_45', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> it is really a restriction typical of a fortiori inferences in general.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_46');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_46');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_46\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">46<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_46\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Starfelt, p. 88.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_46').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_46', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/li>\n<li>One cannot apply it to the words of the sages (the tradition, the Halakhah) in order to draw conclusions that involve law-decisions.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_47');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_47');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_47\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">47<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_47\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_47').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_47', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/li>\n<li>One cannot derive decisions of punishment on the basis of a conclusion (drawn by <i>qal wa-homer<\/i>).<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_48');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_48');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_48\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">48<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_48\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid., <i>ein onshin min ha-din<\/i>, cf. Bacher, p. 22 and Lauterbach, p. 32. For possibly existing opposition to this juridical restriction, see Starfelt, p. 90.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_48').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_48', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>From point B above, one can see that the rabbis did not consider <i>qal wa-homer<\/i> as an unconditionally valid logical form of conclusion, but as a method of interpretation whose validity was totally dependent on Scripture as the primary source for the interpretation or exposition. This meant that there had to be a direct relation between Scripture and the conclusion (drawn by <i>qal wa-homer<\/i>); thus the premise of the conclusion had to be taken from Scripture alone. Point C, too, shows that only a conditional value was attributed to <i>qal wa-homer<\/i>.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_49');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_49');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_49\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">49<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_49\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Compare Starfelt, pp. 91 and 271.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_49').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_49', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p>A. Schwarz attempted to prove that <i>qal wa-homer<\/i> is identical with the Aristotelian syllogism.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_50');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_50');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_50\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">50<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_50\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">A. Schwarz, <i>Hermeneutischer Syllogismus in der talmudischen Literatur<\/i> (Karlsruhe, 1901).<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_50').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_50', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> This has been opposed by others.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_51');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_51');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_51\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">51<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_51\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Cf. Starfelt, pp. 80 ff., where he rejects the theories that <i>qal wa-homer<\/i> has its origin in the Aristotelian \u201cBarbara\u201d syllogism (Schwarz) or in the antinomy inference (Hirschfeld) or in classical rhetoric (Daube). See also Jacobs, p. 367, for criticism of Schwarz\u2019s theory of identification with the Aristotelian syllogism.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_51').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_51', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p>Various scholars have proposed examples of <i>qal wa-homer<\/i> in the New Testament.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_52');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_52');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_52\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">52<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_52\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See J.W. Doeve, <i>Jewish Hermeneutics in the Synoptic Gospels and Acts<\/i> (Assen, 1953), p. 97, who mentions 2 Cor. 3:8 f. He adds on p. 105, among others, Mt. 7:11 (Lk. 11:13), Mt. 10:25, Lk. 12:28, Rom. 11:12 (and compare 11:24), Heb. 9:14 and 10:29\u00b7 Cf. ibid., p. 66, for his understanding of the rule. Also J. Jeremias, \u201cPaulus als Hillelit,\u201d in E.E. Ellis and M. Wilcox eds., <i>Neotestamentica et Semitica: Studies in Honour of M. Black<\/i> (Edinburgh, 1969), who mentions (p. 92) Rom. 5:15 and 17, Rom. 11:12, 2 Cor. 3:7-8, 9 and 11 (a minori ad maius); Rom. 5:6-9, 8:32 and 11:24, 1 Cor. 6:2-3 (a maiori ad minus). R.N. Longenecker, <i>Biblical Exegesis in the Apostolic Period<\/i> (Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1975), mentions (pp. 68-9) Mt. 7:11 and 12:5-7, Lk. 12:28, Jn 7:23 and 10:34-36 (a minori ad maius); further (p. 117) Rom. 5:15-21 and as underlying Rom. 11:12 and 2 Cor. 3:7-18 (also a minori ad maius); cf. p. 34 on his \u201cdefinition.\u201d Daube, op. cit. (note 17), p. 255, mentions Mt. 12:10 ff., Lk. 13:14 ff. and Rom. 5:8-9 (a minori ad maius). Compare here also L. Jacobs, <i>Studies in Talmudic Logic and Methodology<\/i> (London, 1961), p. 4, \u03b7. 1, who finds all of Daube\u2019s three mentioned examples to be cases of what he himself terms \u201csimple\u201d <i>qal wa-homer<\/i>. (Subsequent references to Jacobs will continue to be to his op. cit., note 17.)<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_52').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_52', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> As a point of comparison, let us first cite a passage from rabbinic literature (Avot 1:5): \u201cJose ben Johanan of Jerusalem used to say: \u2018Let your house be wide open and let the poor be your household, and talk not much with the woman.\u2019 If he said this about his own wife, how much more (<i>qal wa-homer<\/i>) then about the wife of his friend.\u201d The New Testament examples are of both types of argumentation distinguished above.<\/p>\n<h5><strong>A) Argumentation a minori ad maius<\/strong><\/h5>\n<p>Matthew 7:11: \u201cIf you then, evil as you are, know to give your children good gifts, how much more surely [<i>poso mallon<\/i>] will your Father who is in heaven give good gifts to those who ask him.\u201d (Cf. also Luke 11:13.)<\/p>\n<p>Romans 5:15: \u201cWith the gift of grace, however, it is by no means as it is with the transgression; for if through the transgression of the one [i.e., Adam] many had to die, far more richly [<i>pollo mallon<\/i>] did the grace of G-d and his gift, that comes through the favor of one man Jesus Christ, overflow to the many.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Among other passages that may be cited here are: Matthew 12:5-8 and 12:10-13; Luke 12:28 and 13:14ff; John 7:23 and 10:34-36; Romans 5:17 and 11:12; 2 Corinthians 3:7-11.<br \/>\n<a name=\"m2\"><\/a><\/p>\n<h5><strong>B) Argumentation a maiori ad minus<\/strong><\/h5>\n<p>Romans 8:32; \u201cHe who did not even spare his own Son, but gave Him up on behalf of us all, will He not also favor us with everything along with Him?\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Among other possible examples is 1 Corinthians 6:2 ff.<\/p>\n<h4><strong><i>Gezerah shawah<\/i><\/strong><\/h4>\n<p><i>Gezerah shawah<\/i> is second in the lists of Hillel and R. Ishmael, but seventh in R. Eliezer\u2019s list of thirty-two middot. The very meaning of the expression is much disputed. It consists of a noun, gezerah, and an adjective, shawah (\u201clike\u201d). The noun is connected to the verb gazar, which means both \u201ccut apart, separate\u201d and \u201cdecide, determine.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_53');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_53');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_53\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">53<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_53\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Bacher, p. 12, and Gertner, op. cit. (note 1), p. 24.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_53').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_53', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> This noun particularly has been understood in different ways. Among the suggested meanings of the whole expression are the following:<\/p>\n<ol style=\"list-style-type: upper-latin;\">\n<li>the same <i>expression<\/i> (in both texts)<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_54');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_54');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_54\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">54<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_54\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Cf. Gertner, ibid.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_54').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_54', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/li>\n<li>the same <i>halakhic decision<\/i> or <i>rule<\/i> (in both cases)<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_55');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_55');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_55\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">55<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_55\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Cf. ibid.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_55').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_55', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/li>\n<li>a <i>comparison<\/i> of two prescriptions, or a comparison with the like.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_56');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_56');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_56\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">56<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_56\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Compare here S. Lieberman, <i>Hellenism in Jewish Palestine<\/i> (New York, 1950), p. 59\u00b7<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_56').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_56', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/li>\n<li>identical <i>interpretation<\/i>.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_57');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_57');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_57\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">57<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_57\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Gertner, p. 25, as his own proposition. For possible criticisms of these four suggestions, see ibid, as well as Starfelt, pp. 93-4.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_57').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_57', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>Starfelt points out, however, that among modern scholars who have investigated this rule there seems to be agreement that <i>gezerah<\/i> here has its normal meaning of \u201cdetermination, decision.\u201d Since <i>shawah<\/i> means \u201clike, of similar nature,\u201d the basic meaning of the combined expression should therefore be \u201cequal or similar decision, determination.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_58');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_58');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_58\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">58<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_58\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Starfelt, pp. 93-4.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_58').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_58', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p>As with <i>qal wa-homer<\/i>, <i>gezerah shawah<\/i> has from time to time been regarded as a purely logical principle, namely, the rabbinical version of an argument from analogy.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_59');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_59');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_59\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">59<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_59\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Starfelt, pp. 107 ff. and 271, makes special mention of S. Landau (a strictly logical matter-analogy) and Schwarz (purely logical method); compare here also Jacobs, p. 368 (originally a purely logical principle).<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_59').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_59', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> From some controversies, it seems that the school of Shammai could use <i>gezerah shawah<\/i> as a term for matter-analogy.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_60');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_60');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_60\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">60<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_60\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Bacher, p. 14.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_60').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_60', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Yet although the expression seems to have been used also for other things than an analogy built on similar words or expressions, the latter meaning occurs early and is the only usage in the tannaitic midrashim<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_61');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_61');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_61\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">61<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_61\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_61').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_61', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> A comparison of various texts shows that in most cases the rule deals just with clear and obvious linguistic elements such as the same word or expression.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_62');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_62');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_62\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">62<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_62\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Starfelt, p. 272.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_62').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_62', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> For the terminology used in connection with the expression <i>gezerah shawah<\/i>, see the relevant reference works.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_63');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_63');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_63\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">63<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_63\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See, e.g., Bacher, op. cit.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_63').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_63', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p>There were also certain restrictions on the use of gezerah shawah:<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_64');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_64');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_64\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">64<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_64\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See here Jacobs, p. 368, and Starfelt, especially pp. 99 ff.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_64').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_64', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<ol style=\"list-style-type: upper-latin;\">\n<li>One could not advance a <i>gezerah shawah<\/i> independently, but had to receive it through the tradition from one\u2019s teachers: <i>ein adam dan gezerah shawah me-atzmo<\/i>.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_65');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_65');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_65\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">65<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_65\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Cf. bPesahim 66a and jPesahim 6:1.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_65').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_65', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> A <i>gezerah shawah<\/i> therefore had to be built on the tradition. To put it differently: one could never advance new rules by means of <i>gezerah shawah<\/i>, but only show that already binding rules were in accordance with Scripture.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_66');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_66');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_66\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">66<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_66\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Starfelt, p. 272.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_66').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_66', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/li>\n<li>Both texts had to be from the Torah (Pentateuch).<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_67');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_67');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_67\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">67<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_67\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Jacobs, p. 368, refers here to bBava Kamma 2b (in his discussion of the thirteen rules of R. Ishmael).<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_67').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_67', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/li>\n<li>The words in a <i>gezerah shawah<\/i> had not only to be alike or the same, but also pleonastic or superfluous (<i>mufneh<\/i>) in the context where they occur, such that one can say that they were placed there just to point to that <i>gezerah sbawah<\/i>.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_68');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_68');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_68\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">68<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_68\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Compare here also Bacher, pp. 15 and 148-9, who translates the expression <i>mufneh<\/i> = \u201cfrei, ledig.\u201d For a more thorough discussion of <i>mufneh<\/i>, see Starfelt, pp. 99-104.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_68').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_68', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> It seems, however, that the school of R. Akiva may disagree with the school of R. Ishmael and not require <i>mufneh<\/i>.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_69');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_69');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_69\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">69<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_69\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Jacobs, p. 368.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_69').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_69', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>Also with <i>gezerah shawah<\/i>, examples have been discerned in the New Testament.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_70');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_70');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_70\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">70<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_70\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See, e.g., Doeve, pp. 106-7, who mentions Mt. 12:3-4 (cf. p. 66 for his \u201cdefinition\u201d). Jeremias, pp. 92-3, speaks of \u201cder Analogieschluss auf Grund gleichlautender Worte\u201d in Rom. 4:1-12.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_70').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_70', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Here too, we consider first a sample passage from rabbinical literature, namely a question put to Hillel (bPesahim 66a):<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>They said to him: \u201cDo you know whether Passover puts aside the Sabbath or not?\u201d \u201cHave we [only] one Passover during the year which puts aside the Sabbath?\u201d He answered them. \u201cVerily, we have many more than two hundred Passovers during the year which put aside the Sabbath!\u201d They said to him: \u201cHow do you know that?\u201d He answers them: \u201c Appointed time [<i>mo\u2019ado<\/i>] is expressed in connection with Passover [cf. Num. 9:2] and appointed time is expressed in connection with <i>tamid<\/i> [cf. Num. 28:2]; just as <i>appointed time<\/i> which is expressed in connection with <i>tamid<\/i> [cf. Num. 28:2] puts aside the Sabbath, <i>appointed<\/i> time which is said in connection with Passover puts aside the Sabbath.\u201d<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Here, the premise is that the expression <i>mo\u2019ado<\/i> occurs both in connection with the rule for celebrating Passover (Num. 9:2) and in connection with the <i>tamid<\/i>-offering (Num. 28:2). It is therefore concluded: just as the <i>tamid<\/i>-offering puts aside the Sabbath (cf. the commandment about resting on the Sabbath), so also Passover puts it aside.<\/p>\n<p>A New Testament example is Romans 4:1-12:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>What shall we say, then, that Abraham our human ancestor has discovered? For if Abraham was justified because of works, then he has something to boast of. But not before G-d, for what does Scripture say? Abraham believed G-d, and it was <i>accounted<\/i> to him for righteousness [Gen. 15:6). Now, to a workman wages are not paid as a favor but as an obligation; while to the person who does not have deeds, but believes in Him who <i>declares<\/i> the ungodly righteous, to him his faith is <i>accounted<\/i> for righteousness. Precisely as David mentions the blessedness of the man to whom G-d <i>accounts<\/i> righteousness apart from his works:<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">Blessed are they whose iniquities have been forgiven<br \/>\nand whose sins have been covered.<br \/>\nBlessed is the man whose sin the L-rd will not <i>count<\/i>.<br \/>\n[Ps. 32:1 f. = LXX 31:1 f.]<\/p>\n<p>Now, then, does this ascription of blessedness apply only to the circumcised, or to the uncircumcised as well? For this is our statement: faith was <i>accounted<\/i> to Abraham for righteousness [cf. Gen. 15:61. Then how was it <i>accounted<\/i>? When he was circumcised, or when he was still uncircumcised? Not when he was circumcised [cf. Gen. 17.9 ff.], but when he was still uncircumcised; and he received the mark of circumcision as a seal of the righteousness of the faith which he had while still uncircumcised, so that he might be the father of all uncircumcised believers, that to them righteousness might be <i>accounted<\/i>.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>In this passage, all the words emphasized represent the same Greek verb <i>logizesthai<\/i>, which serves as the similar expression required for a <i>gezerah shawah<\/i>. The passage employs, however, one text from the Torah (Gen. 15:6) and one from the Psalms (Ps. 32:1), not two texts from the Torah (as normally required by restriction B mentioned above). It may therefore be questioned whether the passage represents a \u201cpure\u201d or \u201cgenuine\u201d <i>gezerah shawah<\/i>.<\/p>\n<p><a name=\"m3\"><\/a>Among other passages mentioned as exemplifications of <i>gezerah shawah<\/i> in the New Testament are: Acts 2:25-28 with 33 ff. (Ps. 16:8-11 = LXX 15:8-11 and 110:1 = LXX 109:1, ek dexion mod)\u00b7, Acts 13:34ff (Is. 55:3 and Ps. 16:10 = LXX 15:10, a form of hosios in both places); and possibly also Mt. 12:1-4.<\/p>\n<h4><em><strong>Binyan av mi-katuv ehad<\/strong><\/em><\/h4>\n<p>This rule and the next one are ranked as third and fourth in the collection of Hillel, while both are counted together as the third by R. Ishmael and as the eighth by R. Eliezer. Here we deal with an induction from a single passage of Scripture (katuv ehad). To put it differently, we have here a construction (binyan) where the premise appears as \u201cfather\u201d (av) to the conclusions drawn from it.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_71');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_71');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_71\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">71<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_71\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Jacobs, p. 368. Bacher, p. 9, translates <i>binyan av<\/i> with \u201cGr\u00fcndung einer Familie\u201d because he holds that <i>av<\/i> here has to be extended to (and understood) <i>bet av<\/i> \u201cFamilie\u201d (ibid., p. 1). For the terminology, see here also Bacher, pp. 9-11, and Starfelt, p. 114.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_71').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_71', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> That single scriptural passage thereby serves as the basis for the interpretation of many others, such that the decision made in the first case is also considered valid for the rest.<\/p>\n<p>Since it is uncertain whether traces of this rule have been claimed in the New Testament,<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_72');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_72');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_72\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">72<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_72\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Neither in the literature mentioned here nor elsewhere have I found examples explicitly given.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_72').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_72', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> merely a rabbinic example will be given (bShabbat 22a):<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>It was taught: \u201cHe shall pour [its blood] out and cover [with dust]\u201d [Lev. 17:131 \u2014 with what he has poured out [i.e., with the hand], he shall [also] cover. He shall not cover it with the foot, so that prescripts may not be contemptible to him [i.e., so that he shall not treat them with contempt]. So [is the case] here also [i.e., regarding the Hanukkah-lamp]&#8230;<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The last sentence is then applied further: it is not allowed to count money in the light of the Hanukkah-lamp, etc., then comes: \u201cR. Joseph said: The basis [lit. \u2018their father\u2019 \u2014 <i>av<\/i>] of all of them [i.e., for all these prescripts] is [the prescript about] the blood.\u201d<\/p>\n<p><a name=\"m4\"><\/a>Here, the \u201cfather\u201d for all the prescripts and regulations that follow is the blood. That is, the other prescripts are derived from what is taught to be the rule in the case of the blood mentioned in Leviticus 17:13 (this passage being the <i>katuv ehad<\/i>).<\/p>\n<h4><em><strong>Binyan av mi-shnei ketuvim<\/strong><\/em><\/h4>\n<p>This is like the preceding rule, except that the induction in this case proceeds from two passages of Scripture instead of merely from one. That is, the decisions given in two laws (two scriptural passages) are considered to have one characteristic feature in common (<i>ha-tzad ba-shaweh<\/i>), which is then applied to many other laws (passages of Scripture) that are also considered to have the same characteristic feature.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_73');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_73');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_73\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">73<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_73\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Lauterbach, p. 33\u00b7 Jacobs, p. 368, mentions bBava Mezia 87b as an example (in his discussion of R. Ishmael\u2019s thirteen <i>middot<\/i>).<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_73').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_73', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p>Here too, it is unclear whether traces of this rule have been claimed in the New Testament,<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_74');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_74');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_74\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">74<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_74\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Here too, I have not found examples mentioned.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_74').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_74', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> so only a rabbinic example will be given, namely, Mekhilta de Rabbi Ishmael, Ex. 21:27 (neziqin 9):<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_75');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_75');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_75\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">75<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_75\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Text as in Lauterbach\u2019s edition; Horowitz-Rabin has a somewhat shorter text.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_75').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_75', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<blockquote><p>\u201c[And] if he knocks out the tooth of his male slave [or female slave, he must let them go free for the tooth]\u201d [Ex. 21:27], I [might understand that this applies] even if he has knocked out a milk tooth. [But] it is [also] said \u201ceye\u201d [in the preceding verse, Ex. 21:26: \u201cWhen a man hits the eye of his slave, male or female, and destroys it, he must let them go free for the eye\u201d]. What is an eye? [An eye which is first damaged] can not be healthy again. [So it is] also [with] a tooth. [Also a tooth which is first damaged] cannot grow out again. [But] I have no other [sc. basis for release] than the ones specifically mentioned: the tooth and the eye. Where [then] do all other chief organs get their characteristic traits from? You judge <i>binyan av<\/i> between both of them [i.e., on the basis of what is common to both cases, eye and tooth, you derive what must apply to all chief organs of the body]. The peculiarity of the tooth is not the same as the peculiarity of the eye. Nor is the peculiarity of the eye the same as the peculiarity of the tooth. But what is common [<i>ha-tzad ha-shaweh<\/i>] to [both of] them is that it constitutes permanent defects [if one loses them]; they are apparently chief organs. [And if the master] with intention [damages these organs of his slave], he [i.e., the slave] goes out as a free man on account of [what has happened with] them [i.e., with the eye and the tooth]. Or [does not the same apply] if he has cut off flesh from him [i.e., from the body of the slave]? It is said [i.e., Scripture mentions] the tooth and the eye [cf. Ex. 21:26 f.]. The peculiarity [of them] is that it constitutes permanent defects [if one loses them]; they are apparently chief organs.<br \/>\n<a name=\"m5\"><\/a>And [if the master] with intention [damages these organs of his slave] which cannot grow out again, he [i.e., the slave] goes out as a free man on account of [what happened with] them [i.e., with the organs]. Therefore I only include those [organs] which it constitutes permanent defects if one loses them; they are apparently chief organs. And [if the master] with intention [damages such organs] which cannot grow out again, he [i.e., the slave] goes out as a free man on account of them.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<h4><strong><em>Kelal u-ferat u-ferat u-khelal<\/em><\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>This rule (\u201cthe general and the specific, and the specific and the general\u201d) comes fifth in Hillel\u2019s collection, while in R. Ishmael\u2019s it is divided into eight different rules, namely numbers four through eleven.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_76');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_76');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_76\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">76<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_76\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">For a short discussion of these eight rules, see, e.g., Jacobs, pp. 369-70.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_76').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_76', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Here it will suffice to take into consideration the three main forms,<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_77');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_77');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_77\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">77<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_77\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">For the three main forms, cf. Starfelt, pp. 115-118.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_77').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_77', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> since numbers seven through ten of R. Ishmael\u2019s rules can be considered modifications of these, which can mainly be viewed as reflecting the earlier usage that the tradition connects with Hillel.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_78');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_78');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_78\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">78<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_78\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Cf. Starfelt, p. 121.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_78').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_78', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p><i>Kelal<\/i> can be translated \u201csum up, generalize,\u201d in contrast to <i>perat<\/i>, \u201cput special emphasis on, specify.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_79');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_79');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_79\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">79<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_79\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Cf. here, and for the terminology in general, Bacher, pp. 79-82, 153.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_79').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_79', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Behind this rule there seems to lie the observation that Scripture in certain passages first mentions a general concept (kelal) and thereafter a specific one (perat), while in other passages it conversely mentions a specific concept first and thereafter a general one.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_80');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_80');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_80\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">80<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_80\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Starfelt, p. 115.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_80').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_80', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<h5><strong>A) <i>Kelal u-ferat<\/i><\/strong><\/h5>\n<p>In this form, a general expression is mentioned first, followed by a more specific one, such that the latter constitutes an exhaustive specification of the former. To put it differently, the general expression is considered to signify no more (and no less) than what is explicitly stated in the specific one. A biblical example is Leviticus 1:2: \u201cYou shall bring an offering of the cattle [kelali, even from the herd or from the flock [perat].\u201d Although the expression \u201ccattle\u201d usually includes also the wild beasts (i.e., non-domesticated cattle), the latter are excluded by the specific limitation \u201cthe herd and the flock.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>In midrashic literature, this text from Scripture is indeed used to exemplify the rule in Sifra, Introduction 7 (Weiss ed.):<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>[One rule is that Torah is explored] from the general and the specific [<i>kelal u-ferat<\/i>. How? [Like this:] from \u201ccattle,\u201d [this being] the general [<i>kelal<\/i>], and from \u201cthe herd\u201d and from \u201cthe flock,\u201d [both of these together being] the specific [<i>perat<\/i>], [by applying] the general and the specific [<i>kelal u-ferat<\/i>], there is nothing in the general [<i>kelal<\/i>] without being in the specific [<i>perat<\/i>],<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>A New Testament example is Galatians 5:14: \u201cFor the entire Law [<i>kelal<\/i>] is summed up in this one statement: \u2018Love your neighbor as yourself [<i>perat<\/i>].\u201d<\/p>\n<h5><strong>B) <i>Perat u-khelal<\/i><\/strong><\/h5>\n<p>Here, the specific expression is mentioned first, followed by a general one. The general is considered to cover the specific, but therefore also to include other cases than those mentioned in the specific.<\/p>\n<p>A rabbinic example is Sifra, Introduction 8 (Weiss ed.):<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>[One rule is that Torah is explored] from the specific and the general [<i>perat u-khelal<\/i>]. How? [Like this:] \u201cWhen someone commits to his neighbor\u2019s care a donkey or an ox or a sheep,\u201d [these being] the specific [<i>perat<\/i>], \u201cor any livestock,\u201d [this being] the general [<i>kelal<\/i>] [Ex. 22:9], [by applying] the specific and the general [<i>perat u-khelal<\/i>], we will make the general [<i>kelal<\/i>] an addition to the specific [<i>perat<\/i>].<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>That is, by applying the rule to this verse, it is concluded that the verse covers also beasts other than those specifically mentioned in it.<\/p>\n<p><strong>C) <i>Kelal u-ferat u-khelal<\/i><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>This combines the two preceding forms inasmuch as a general expression is followed by a specific one and then a general one. The decision in question is thereby taken to be generally valid for all the cases contained in the general expression, being at the same time also in accordance with that which the specific cases have in common.<\/p>\n<p>Here too, a rabbinic example is Sifra, Introduction 8 (Weiss ed.):<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>[One rule is that Torah is explored] from the general and the specific and the general [<i>kelal u-ferat u-khelal<\/i>]. How? [Like this in Deut. 14:26:] \u201cAnd you can spend the money on whatever you might desire,\u201d [this being] the general [<i>kelal<\/i>], \u201cbullocks and sheep, wine and strong drink,\u201d [these being] the specific [<i>perat<\/i>], \u201cand everything else that you might want,\u201d [again] back to the general [<i>kelal<\/i>], [by applying] the general and the specific and the general [<i>kelal u-ferat u-khelal<\/i>],<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Starfelt holds that here, too, what is decisive for the interpretation is not a purely logical relation between the universal and the particular, but rather the order in which the concepts are mentioned in the passage of Scripture. Again he finds that the interpretation of the rabbis can be understood only against the background of the their conviction that G-d, as the author of Scripture, often chooses to present His instructions by means of the finest linguistic tools and nuances.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_81');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_81');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_81\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">81<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_81\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Cf. Starfelt, especially pp. 118 and 272.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_81').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_81', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p>Examples of this rule have also been cited from the New Testament,<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_82');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_82');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_82\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">82<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_82\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See, e.g., Longenecker, p. 117, who mentions Rom. 13:8-10 (cf. his \u201cdefinition,\u201d p. 34). Jeremias, p. 93, cites Rom. 13:9 and Gal. 5:14 (cf. his \u201cdefinition\u201d: \u201cGenerelles und Spezielles, unterscheidet zwischen umfassenden und speziellen Geboten und lasst sie sich gegenseitig bestimmen\u201d).<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_82').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_82', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> such as the following k<i>elal u-ferat u-ferat u-khelal<\/i> (Romans 13:8-10):<a name=\"m6\"><\/a><\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Owe no one anything except that you love one another, for the person who loves his neighbor has fulfilled the law [<i>kelal<\/i>]. For \u201cDo not commit adultery; do not kill; do not steal; do not covet\u201d [<i>perat<\/i>], and whatever other commandment there is, may be summarized in one word, and that is: \u201cLove your neighbor as yourself\u2019 [<i>perat<\/i>]. Love works no harm to one\u2019s neighbor, so love meets all the Law\u2019s requirements [<i>kelal<\/i>].<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<h4><strong><i>Keyotzeh bo be-makom\/mi-makom aher<\/i><\/strong><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_83');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_83');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_83\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">83<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_83\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">The text varies: <i>be-makom<\/i> in Sifra (cf. here also Azimani 66), but <i>mi-makom<\/i> in tSanhedrin 7:11.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_83').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_83', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/h4>\n<p>The sixth rule ascribed to Hillel concerns interpretation of one passage of Scripture by means of another having similar contents.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_84');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_84');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_84\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">84<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_84\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Bacher, p. 76; cf. also Lauterbach, pp. 334\u05be.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_84').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_84', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> It has no direct counterpart among the rules of R. Ishmael, being special to the scheme of Hillel. It comes close to binyan av (see above) and is by R. Ishmael and R. Eliezer replaced by this (as respectively the third and the eighth of their rules).<\/p>\n<p>A rabbinic example is bBava Kamma 86b:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>[The exemption from] the obligation of capital punishment by a court [is derived by comparing the expression] \u201cmurderer\u201d [used in the passage which deals with capital punishment, Num. 35:31, with the expression] \u201cmurderer\u201d [used in the passage which deals with] the obligation of exile [Deut. 19:3]. [The exemption from] the obligation of lashes is learnt [by comparing the expression] \u201cguilty\u201d [in the passage which deals with lashes, Deut. 25:2, with the expression] \u201cguilty\u201d [Num. 35:31, which occurs in the case] of them who are guilty of capital punishment by a court.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>An example from the New Testament may be found in the third chapter of Galatians. The use of Genesis 22:18 in Galatians 3:16 is related by similar contents to the use of Genesis 12:3 in Galatians 3:8.<\/p>\n<p>Galatians 3:16: \u201cBut the promises were spoken to Abraham and to his offspring [<i>to spermati autou<\/i>]. It does not say \u2018And to the offsprings\u2019 in the plural, but in the singular \u2018And to your offspring\u2019 [<i>to spermati sou<\/i>], which is Christ.\u201d Compare here Genesis 22:18: \u201cAnd through your offspring [LXX: <i>en to spermati sou<\/i>] all peoples of the earth shall be blessed; because you have obeyed my voice.\u201d<\/p>\n<p><a name=\"m7\"><\/a>Galatians 3:8: \u201cAnd in anticipation that G-d would justify the Gentiles through faith, the Scripture foretold the good news to Abraham in the promise: \u2018In you [<i>en soi<\/i>] will all the nations be blessed.\u2019\u201d Compare here Genesis 12:3: \u201cI will bless those who bless you and upon him who insults you I will put my curse. Also in you [LXX: <i>en soi<\/i>] all the families of the earth shall be blessed.\u201d<\/p>\n<h4><strong><i>Davar ha-lamed me-inyano<\/i><\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>This rule is seventh in the collection of Hillel and the first part of number twelve in the collection of R. Ishmael. The significance of the \u201cword that is learnt\u201d (<i>davar ha-lamed<\/i>) is found by a conclusion (interpretation) drawn from its context (<i>me-inyano<\/i>).<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_85');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_85');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_85\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">85<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_85\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Compare Jacobs, p. 370, and Bacher, p. 143.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_85').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_85', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Here the term <i>inyan<\/i> is said exclusively to have the meaning \u201cobject matter\u201d (\u201csubject matter\u201d) or \u201ccontents\u201d (German: <i>Thema<\/i>, <i>Inhalt<\/i>) in tannaitic literature, being very often used there in scriptural exegesis to denote the matter or contents of the passage of Scripture under discussion, or also to denote that passage itself inasfar as it deals with a particular object or a particular content.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_86');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_86');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_86\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">86<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_86\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Bacher, p. 140 (also especially p. 142 on this rule).<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_86').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_86', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p>A rabbinic example is bSanhedrin 86a, which starts with the question: \u201cFrom where [in Scripture do we learn] a warning against one who steals a human being?\u201d R. Josia said: \u201cFrom \u2018You shall not steal\u2019 [Ex. 20:151.\u201d R. Johanan said: \u201cFrom \u2018They shall not be sold as slaves\u2019 [Lev. 25:42].\u201d The text continues:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>There is no disagreement [between them]. One master applies it to the prohibition against theft [i.e., abduction], the other master to sale [of the kidnapped person]. Our rabbis taught: \u201cYou shall not steal\u201d [Ex. 20:15] &#8211; [this refers] to theft of human beings. You say: \u201cThe scriptural passage refers to theft of human beings,\u201d but perhaps it is not so; maybe theft of money is meant? \u2014 You said: \u201cGo and learn of the thirteen rules by means of which the Torah is interpreted\u201d [<i>darash<\/i>]. [One of them is:] a word that is learnt from its context [<i>davar ha-lamed me-inyano<\/i>]. What is the [passage of] Scripture then talking about? It is talking about [crimes which involve] capital punishment. Therefore also this refers to [a crime which involves] capital punishment.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>In this example, the rule is explicitly referred to by name in order to show that \u201cYou shall not steal\u201d (Ex. 20:15) should be interpreted as referring to theft of human beings and not to theft of property. It is argued: since the overall context (i.e., the Decalogue) relates to a series of offences that are known to entail capital punishment (idolatry, profanation of the Sabbath, murder, etc.), so also \u201cYou shall not steal\u201d must be a prohibition against such an offence, but abduction is the only theft punished in that way.<\/p>\n<p><a name=\"concluding\"><\/a>As a New Testament example, we may consider Paul\u2019s argument in Romans 4:3-12; see the complete quotation of this passage above in the discussion of <i>gezerah shawah<\/i>. Here, a text from the Torah (Gen. 15:6), which underlies Romans 4:3 (where it is explicitly quoted) and thereby effectively the whole passage as well, is combined with a secondary text from the Ketuvim (Ps. 32:12) in the argument by <i>davar ha-lamed me-inyano<\/i>. The author reasons about how righteousness is accounted in relation to circumcision; pointing to the chronological and therefore also logical priority of Abraham\u2019s uncircumcision, he argues that Abraham is father of both circumcised and uncircumcised. He concludes that the main thing is then not circumcision but faith, just as it was in the case of Abraham himself at that decisive moment (Gen. 15:6).<\/p>\n<h2><strong>Concluding Remarks<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>Some scholars have overemphasized the purely logical aspects of the rules. The above discussion tends more to confirm the view of Starfelt, who regards the halakhic rules as a mixture of logical elements and other factors based on the particular view of Scripture held by the rabbis, who considered it \u2014 and especially the Torah \u2014 to be unlike any other text.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_87');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_289_1('footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_87');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_87\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">87<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_87\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Cf. Starfelt, p. 272.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_87').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_289_1_87', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p>Nor was any direct influence from Hellenistic sources discerned behind the hermeneutical rules, although there may seem to be some external terminological parallels. The two worlds of thought are too different.<br \/>\nExamples of rules one and two and five through seven were found in the New Testament, and some were quoted. There is, however, a particular problem of the possibly different view and understanding of the rules by scholars of modern times who investigate the rules in rabbinic literature. Scholars do not fully agree about the meaning of the rules or the meaning of their names, especially in the case of <i>gezerah shawah<\/i>. Such disagreement can also, of course, to a certain extent make it unclear whether examples of a given rule occur in the New Testament or not. This aspect of the issue could not be discussed further here.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<p style=\"text-align: right;\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000;\">This article was published in<\/span> <a title=\"Immanuel\" href=\"https:\/\/www.etrfi.info\/articles\/?page_id=2\">Immanuel<\/a> <a title=\"Immanuel 24\/25\" href=\"http:\/\/www.etrfi.info\/immanuel\/issue.php?i=24\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">24\/25, 1990<\/a>, <a title=\"scanned article, jpg-files\" href=\"http:\/\/www.etrfi.info\/immanuel\/article.php?i=24&amp;p=52\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">p. 132-146<\/a><br \/>\n<span style=\"color: #ff0000;\">See also:<\/span>\u00a0<a title=\"pdf-file, searchable\" href=\"http:\/\/www.etrfi.info\/pdf\/Immanuel_24_132.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">www.etrfi.info\/pdf\/Immanuel_24_132.pdf<\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"speaker-mute footnotes_reference_container\"> <div class=\"footnote_container_prepare\"><p><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_label pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_289_1();\">Notes<\/span><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button\" style=\"\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_289_1();\">[<a id=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_289_1\">+<\/a>]<\/span><\/p><\/div> <div id=\"footnote_references_container_289_1\" style=\"display: none;\"><table class=\"footnotes_table footnote-reference-container\"><caption class=\"accessibility\">Notes<\/caption> <tbody> \r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_1\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_1');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>1<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">For a more thorough treatment of peshat in rabbinic literature, see I. Frankel, <i>Peshat in Talmudic and Midrashic Literature<\/i> (Toronto, 1956); W. Bacher, <i>Die exegetische Terminologie der j\u00fcdischen Traditionsliteratur<\/i> (Leipzig, 1899), vol. 2, pp. 170 ff. (<i>peshat<\/i>). On the terminology, see among others M. Gertner, \u201cTerms of Scriptural Interpretation: A Study in Hebrew Semantics,\u201d <i>Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies<\/i> 25 (1962), 1-27; J.Z. Lauterbach, <i>Jewish Encyclopedia<\/i>, vol. 9, pp. 6523; R. Loewe, \u201cThe \u2018Plain\u2019 Meaning of Scripture in Early Jewish Exegesis,\u201d J.G. Weiss ed., <i>Papers of the Institute of Jewish Studies in London<\/i> (London, 1964), pp. 140-185.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_2\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_2');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>2<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">For a closer look at the discussion around Geiger and the issue of the natural meaning of Scripture, see E. Starfelt, <i>Studier i rabbinsk og nytestamentlig skrifttolkning<\/i> (Studia Theologica Lundensia 17; Lund, 1959); L. Zunz, <i>Die gottesdienstlichen Vortr\u00e4ge der Juden<\/i> (Berlin, 1832), who identifies <i>peshat<\/i> with \u201cErlauterungen des Schrifttextes nach dem Wortverstande\u201d; Lauterbach, pp. 652-3, who sums up the meaning as \u201csimple Scriptural exegesis\u201d and \u201cthe literal sense of Scripture\u201d; J. Bonsirven, <i>Ex\u00e9g\u00e8se rabbinique et ex\u00e9g\u00e8se paulinienne<\/i>, (Paris, 1939), pp. 5, 34-5 and 389, who interprets <i>peshat<\/i> as \u201csens simple.\u201d<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_3\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_3');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>3<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Compare here A.G. Wright, <i>The Literary Genre Midrash<\/i> (Staten Island, New York, c. 1967), p. 59, first published in <i>Catholic Biblical Quarterly<\/i> 28 (1966), 105-138; 417-457. It is also common to divide Jewish scriptural interpretation into four forms or methods: <i>peshat<\/i> (the literary interpretation), <i>remez<\/i> (allegorical submeaning), <i>derush<\/i> (the common interpretation) and <i>sod<\/i> (the secret or deepest contents). See Lauterbach, p. 653, and Starfelt, p. 30. For a more thorough treatment of the term darash \u2014 midrash in the Old Testament, New Testament, Qumran and rabbinic literature \u2014 see A.J. Hobbel, \u201cHva er midrasj?\u201d, <i>Nordisk Judaistik<\/i> 7:2 (1986), 57-70.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_4\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_4');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>4<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See, e.g., Lauterbach, pp. 652-3, and Wright, pp. 59 ff. Compare also S. Horowits, <i>Jewish Encyclopedia<\/i>, vol. 8, p. 548; J. Neusner, \u201cHistory and Midrash,\u201d <i>Judaism<\/i> 9 (I960), 48-9, who at the same time recalls that the occasional distinction of the rabbis \u201cbetween a particular imaginative Midrash of a verse and its plain sense\u201d meant far less for them than nowadays.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_5\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_5');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>5<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See Loewe.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_6\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_6');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>6<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Compare L.I. Rabinowitz, <i>Encyclopaedia Judaica<\/i>, vol. 8, col. 330; Loewe, especially pp. 156-7 and 183.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_7\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_7');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>7<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">L.I. Rabinowitz, Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. 5, col. 1549.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_8\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_8');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>8<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Neusner, p. 50, who seems to have borrowed the terminology from the book of I. Heinemann, <i>Darkhei Ha-Aggadah<\/i> (Jerusalem, 1949). Cf. also Wright, p. 60.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_9\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_9');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>9<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Compare Wright, p. 61.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_10\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_10');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>10<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Compare Neusner, p. 50.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_11\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_11');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>11<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Wright, p. 61.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_12\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_12');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>12<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Neusner, p. 50.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_13\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_13');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>13<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Wright, pp. 62-3.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_14\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_14');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>14<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Cf. Numbers Rabbah 2:3 and 13:15-16, where it is said that a word of Scripture or a scriptural passage may have 70 (or 49) aspects.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_15\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_15');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>15<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Wright, pp. 62-3.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_16\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_16');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>16<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Wright, pp. 61-2.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_17\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_17');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>17<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">On the following, see especially H.L. Strack, <i>Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash<\/i> (New York, 1969), pp. 93-98; Bonsirven, op. cit. (note 2); D. Daube, \u201cRabbinic Methods of Interpretation and Hellenistic Rhetoric,\u201d <i>Hebrew Union College Annual<\/i> 22 (1949), 239-264; J.Z. Lauterbach, <i>Jewish Encyclopedia<\/i>, vol. 9, pp. 3034; G. Mayer, \u201cExegese II (Judentum),\u201d <i>Reallexicon f\u00fcr Antike und Christentum<\/i>, vol. 6, pp. 1194-1203; B. Salomonsen, \u201cOm rabbinsk hermeneutik,\u201d <i>Dansk Teologisk Tidsskrift<\/i> 36 (1973), 161-173; L. Jacobs, \u201cHermeneutics,\u201d <i>Encyclopaedia Judaica<\/i>, vol. 8, coll. 366-372; A.J. Hobbel, \u201cSkrifttolkning og midrasjlitteratur,\u201d in H. Koalbein ed., <i>Skriftlaerde og fariseere<\/i> (Oslo, 1984), pp. 179-192, 227-229, 245-248, especially pp. 183 ff.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_18\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_18');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>18<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See Starfelt, pp. 60-61.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_19\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_19');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>19<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Compare ibid., pp. 266-7, also pp. 34-47 (about interpretation of the Law).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_20\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_20');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>20<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid., pp. 61-2.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_21\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_21');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>21<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid., p. 62.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_22\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_22');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>22<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid., pp. 68-9.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_23\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_23');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>23<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_24\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_24');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>24<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Compare Jacobs, p. 366. <i>Middot<\/i> = \u201cmeasures,\u201d \u201crules,\u201d \u201cnorms,\u201d \u201cqualities.\u201d On the term, see W. Bacher, op. cit. (note 1 above), vol. 1, pp. 100-103, where he points out that the term does not only designate rules for interpreting Scripture, but also designates this exposition itself (p. 102); compare also vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1905), PP\u00b7 106-7 (but subsequent references to Bacher will be to vol. 1).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_25\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_25');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>25<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Sifra, introduction; Avot de-Rabbi Nathan 110; tSanhedrin 7 (the end).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_26\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_26');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>26<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Sifra, introduction.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_27\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_27');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>27<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Midrash Ha-Gadol, introduction.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_28\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_28');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>28<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">For a brief description of other exegetical rules see, for example, Lauterbach, p. 30.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_29\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_29');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>29<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">A. Hilewitz, <i>Encyclopaedia Judaica<\/i>, vol. 6, col. 630; Jacobs, p. 367.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_30\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_30');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>30<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Jacobs, ibid.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_31\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_31');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>31<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Schwarz considered that Hillel set forth only six middot (cf. Starfelt, p. 70, note 2).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_32\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_32');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>32<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Compare Lauterbach, p. 31.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_33\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_33');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>33<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><i>Encyclopaedia Judaica<\/i>, vol. 8, col. 482.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_34\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_34');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>34<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See among others Mayer, especially pp. 1196-1198. Also Daube, op. cit. (note 17) and \u201cAlexandrian Methods of Interpretation and the Rabbis,\u201d <i>Festschrift H. Lewald<\/i> (Basel, 1953), pp. 27-44.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_35\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_35');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>35<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Sifra, introduction.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_36\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_36');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>36<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Lauterbach, p. 32.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_37\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_37');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>37<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Starfelt, p. 75. For different ways of explaining the expression\u2019s combination of an adjective and a noun, see ibid., n. 3.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_38\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_38');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>38<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Compare Bacher, p. 172.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_39\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_39');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>39<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Compare Lauterbach, p. 32.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_40\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_40');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>40<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Starfelt, p. 80.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_41\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_41');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>41<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">mBava Kamma 2:5, compare mNiddah 4:6. Cf. also bBava Kamma 18b, 37b.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_42\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_42');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>42<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Lauterbach, p. 32.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_43\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_43');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>43<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Starfelt, p. 78.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_44\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_44');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>44<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Compare Jacobs, p. 367.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_45\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_45');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>45<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">bBava Kamma 25a.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_46\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_46');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>46<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Starfelt, p. 88.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_47\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_47');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>47<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_48\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_48');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>48<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid., <i>ein onshin min ha-din<\/i>, cf. Bacher, p. 22 and Lauterbach, p. 32. For possibly existing opposition to this juridical restriction, see Starfelt, p. 90.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_49\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_49');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>49<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Compare Starfelt, pp. 91 and 271.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_50\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_50');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>50<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">A. Schwarz, <i>Hermeneutischer Syllogismus in der talmudischen Literatur<\/i> (Karlsruhe, 1901).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_51\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_51');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>51<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Cf. Starfelt, pp. 80 ff., where he rejects the theories that <i>qal wa-homer<\/i> has its origin in the Aristotelian \u201cBarbara\u201d syllogism (Schwarz) or in the antinomy inference (Hirschfeld) or in classical rhetoric (Daube). See also Jacobs, p. 367, for criticism of Schwarz\u2019s theory of identification with the Aristotelian syllogism.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_52\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_52');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>52<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See J.W. Doeve, <i>Jewish Hermeneutics in the Synoptic Gospels and Acts<\/i> (Assen, 1953), p. 97, who mentions 2 Cor. 3:8 f. He adds on p. 105, among others, Mt. 7:11 (Lk. 11:13), Mt. 10:25, Lk. 12:28, Rom. 11:12 (and compare 11:24), Heb. 9:14 and 10:29\u00b7 Cf. ibid., p. 66, for his understanding of the rule. Also J. Jeremias, \u201cPaulus als Hillelit,\u201d in E.E. Ellis and M. Wilcox eds., <i>Neotestamentica et Semitica: Studies in Honour of M. Black<\/i> (Edinburgh, 1969), who mentions (p. 92) Rom. 5:15 and 17, Rom. 11:12, 2 Cor. 3:7-8, 9 and 11 (a minori ad maius); Rom. 5:6-9, 8:32 and 11:24, 1 Cor. 6:2-3 (a maiori ad minus). R.N. Longenecker, <i>Biblical Exegesis in the Apostolic Period<\/i> (Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1975), mentions (pp. 68-9) Mt. 7:11 and 12:5-7, Lk. 12:28, Jn 7:23 and 10:34-36 (a minori ad maius); further (p. 117) Rom. 5:15-21 and as underlying Rom. 11:12 and 2 Cor. 3:7-18 (also a minori ad maius); cf. p. 34 on his \u201cdefinition.\u201d Daube, op. cit. (note 17), p. 255, mentions Mt. 12:10 ff., Lk. 13:14 ff. and Rom. 5:8-9 (a minori ad maius). Compare here also L. Jacobs, <i>Studies in Talmudic Logic and Methodology<\/i> (London, 1961), p. 4, \u03b7. 1, who finds all of Daube\u2019s three mentioned examples to be cases of what he himself terms \u201csimple\u201d <i>qal wa-homer<\/i>. (Subsequent references to Jacobs will continue to be to his op. cit., note 17.)<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_53\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_53');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>53<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Bacher, p. 12, and Gertner, op. cit. (note 1), p. 24.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_54\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_54');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>54<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Cf. Gertner, ibid.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_55\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_55');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>55<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Cf. ibid.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_56\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_56');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>56<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Compare here S. Lieberman, <i>Hellenism in Jewish Palestine<\/i> (New York, 1950), p. 59\u00b7<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_57\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_57');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>57<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Gertner, p. 25, as his own proposition. For possible criticisms of these four suggestions, see ibid, as well as Starfelt, pp. 93-4.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_58\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_58');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>58<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Starfelt, pp. 93-4.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_59\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_59');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>59<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Starfelt, pp. 107 ff. and 271, makes special mention of S. Landau (a strictly logical matter-analogy) and Schwarz (purely logical method); compare here also Jacobs, p. 368 (originally a purely logical principle).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_60\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_60');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>60<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Bacher, p. 14.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_61\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_61');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>61<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_62\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_62');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>62<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Starfelt, p. 272.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_63\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_63');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>63<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See, e.g., Bacher, op. cit.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_64\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_64');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>64<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See here Jacobs, p. 368, and Starfelt, especially pp. 99 ff.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_65\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_65');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>65<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Cf. bPesahim 66a and jPesahim 6:1.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_66\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_66');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>66<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Starfelt, p. 272.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_67\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_67');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>67<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Jacobs, p. 368, refers here to bBava Kamma 2b (in his discussion of the thirteen rules of R. Ishmael).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_68\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_68');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>68<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Compare here also Bacher, pp. 15 and 148-9, who translates the expression <i>mufneh<\/i> = \u201cfrei, ledig.\u201d For a more thorough discussion of <i>mufneh<\/i>, see Starfelt, pp. 99-104.<br \/>\n<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_69\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_69');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>69<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Jacobs, p. 368.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_70\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_70');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>70<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See, e.g., Doeve, pp. 106-7, who mentions Mt. 12:3-4 (cf. p. 66 for his \u201cdefinition\u201d). Jeremias, pp. 92-3, speaks of \u201cder Analogieschluss auf Grund gleichlautender Worte\u201d in Rom. 4:1-12.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_71\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_71');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>71<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Jacobs, p. 368. Bacher, p. 9, translates <i>binyan av<\/i> with \u201cGr\u00fcndung einer Familie\u201d because he holds that <i>av<\/i> here has to be extended to (and understood) <i>bet av<\/i> \u201cFamilie\u201d (ibid., p. 1). For the terminology, see here also Bacher, pp. 9-11, and Starfelt, p. 114.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_72\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_72');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>72<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Neither in the literature mentioned here nor elsewhere have I found examples explicitly given.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_73\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_73');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>73<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Lauterbach, p. 33\u00b7 Jacobs, p. 368, mentions bBava Mezia 87b as an example (in his discussion of R. Ishmael\u2019s thirteen <i>middot<\/i>).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_74\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_74');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>74<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Here too, I have not found examples mentioned.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_75\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_75');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>75<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Text as in Lauterbach\u2019s edition; Horowitz-Rabin has a somewhat shorter text.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_76\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_76');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>76<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">For a short discussion of these eight rules, see, e.g., Jacobs, pp. 369-70.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_77\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_77');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>77<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">For the three main forms, cf. Starfelt, pp. 115-118.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_78\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_78');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>78<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Cf. Starfelt, p. 121.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_79\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_79');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>79<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Cf. here, and for the terminology in general, Bacher, pp. 79-82, 153.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_80\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_80');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>80<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Starfelt, p. 115.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_81\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_81');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>81<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Cf. Starfelt, especially pp. 118 and 272.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_82\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_82');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>82<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See, e.g., Longenecker, p. 117, who mentions Rom. 13:8-10 (cf. his \u201cdefinition,\u201d p. 34). Jeremias, p. 93, cites Rom. 13:9 and Gal. 5:14 (cf. his \u201cdefinition\u201d: \u201cGenerelles und Spezielles, unterscheidet zwischen umfassenden und speziellen Geboten und lasst sie sich gegenseitig bestimmen\u201d).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_83\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_83');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>83<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">The text varies: <i>be-makom<\/i> in Sifra (cf. here also Azimani 66), but <i>mi-makom<\/i> in tSanhedrin 7:11.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_84\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_84');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>84<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Bacher, p. 76; cf. also Lauterbach, pp. 334\u05be.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_85\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_85');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>85<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Compare Jacobs, p. 370, and Bacher, p. 143.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_86\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_86');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>86<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Bacher, p. 140 (also especially p. 142 on this rule).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_289_1_87\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_289_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_289_1_87');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>87<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Cf. 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